Differentiated Digital Scaffolding to Support Engagement and Learning Independence Among Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25217/0020269828900Keywords:
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Differentiated Digital Scaffolding, English Vocabulary, Inclusive Education, Mobile-Assisted Language LearningAbstract
This study investigated Differentiated Digital Scaffolding (DDS) as an individualized support framework for improving engagement, participation, learning independence, and English vocabulary performance among students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The study used a mixed-method single-subject A–B–A design involving five primary school students with ASD, consisting of three verbal and two minimally verbal students enrolled at an inclusive elementary school in Central Java, Indonesia. Quantitative data were collected through the Engagement and Behavior Observation Checklist, DDS Observation Sheet, Vocabulary Probe Test, response latency records, and prompt-level records. Qualitative data were obtained from classroom observations and teacher interviews. The results showed that on-task behavior among verbal students increased from 50–70% during baseline to 85–95% during the intervention. On-task behavior among minimally verbal students increased from 40–60% to 70–80%. Off-task behavior decreased from 3–8 to 1–2 episodes among verbal students and from 6–11 to 1–3 episodes among minimally verbal students. All participants also demonstrated vocabulary gains of 3–8 correct responses. Verbal students mainly responded through spoken labeling, while minimally verbal students responded through pointing, matching, and visual selection. The findings indicate that DDS supported more stable engagement, reduced prompt dependence, and increased participation through individualized verbal, visual, gestural, technical, and behavioral scaffolding.
References
Alahmed, A. , Alhassan, R. , & Alshahrani, S. (2023). The impact of digital technology on student learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Technology, 45(2), 123–145.
Alzrayer, N., Banda, D. R., & Koul, R. K. (2014). Use of iPad/iPods with Individuals with Autism and other Developmental Disabilities: A Meta-analysis of Communication Interventions. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2014 1:3, 1(3), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40489-014-0018-5
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706QP063OA
Cengher, M., Shamoun, K., Moss, P., Roll, D., Feliciano, G., & Fienup, D. M. (2015). A Comparison of the Effects of Two Prompt-Fading Strategies on Skill Acquisition in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(2), 115. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40617-015-0096-6
Chen, F., Wang, L., Peng, G., Yan, N., & Pan, X. (2019). Development and evaluation of a 3-D virtual pronunciation tutor for children with autism spectrum disorders. PLOS ONE, 14(1), e0210858. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0210858
Fatmawaty, R., Setyaningrum, R. R., & Faridah, F. (2021). Vocabulary Materials Based on Picture Media for Autistic Students. Linguistic, English Education and Art (LEEA), 4(2), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.31539/leea.v4i2.1777
Ganz, J. B. (2015). AAC Interventions for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: State of the Science and Future Research Directions. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (Baltimore, Md. : 1985), 31(3), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.3109/07434618.2015.1047532
Ganz, J. B., Earles-Vollrath, T. L., Heath, A. K., Parker, R. I., Rispoli, M. J., & Duran, J. B. (2012). A meta-analysis of single case research studies on aided augmentative and alternative communication systems with individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(1), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803-011-1212-2
Hayes, G. R., Hirano, S., Marcu, G., Monibi, M., Nguyen, D. H., & Yeganyan, M. (2010). Interactive visual supports for children with autism. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 2010 14:7, 14(7), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00779-010-0294-8
Hume, K., Steinbrenner, J. R., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2021). Evidence-Based Practices for Children, Youth, and Young Adults with Autism: Third Generation Review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(11), 4013–4032. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803-020-04844-2
Hussain, A., Mkpojiogu, E. O. C., & Okoroafor, P. C. (2021). Assisting Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder with Educational Mobile Apps to Acquire Language and Communication Skills: A Review. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (IJIM), 15(06), 161–170. https://doi.org/10.3991/IJIM.V15I06.20621
Kasari, C., Brady, N., Lord, C., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2013). Assessing the minimally verbal school-aged child with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research : Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 6(6), 479–493. https://doi.org/10.1002/AUR.1334
Khowaja, K., Salim, S. S., Asemi, A., Ghulamani, S., & Shah, A. (2019). A systematic review of modalities in computer-based interventions (CBIs) for language comprehension and decoding skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Universal Access in the Information Society 2019 19:2, 19(2), 213–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10209-019-00646-1
Ledford, J. R., & Gast, D. L. (2024). Single Case Research Methodology: Applications in Special Education and Behavioral Sciences. In Single Case Research Methodology: Applications in Special Education and Behavioral Sciences, Fourth Edition (4th ed.). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003294726/SINGLE-CASE-RESEARCH-METHODOLOGY-DAVID-GAST-JENNIFER-LEDFORD/RIGHTS-AND-PERMISSIONS
Lord, C., Elsabbagh, M., Baird, G., & Veenstra-Vanderweele, J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder. Lancet (London, England), 392(10146), 508–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31129-2
Meindl, J. N., Delgado, D., & Casey, L. B. (2020). Increasing engagement in students with autism in inclusion classrooms. Children and Youth Services Review, 111, 104854. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHILDYOUTH.2020.104854
Milley, A., & Machalicek, W. (2012). Decreasing Students’ Reliance on Adults: A Strategic Guide for Teachers of Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(2), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451212449739
Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language. In Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?partnerID=HzOxMe3b&scp=85177168962&origin=inward
Odom, S. L., Hall, L. J., Morin, K. L., Kraemer, B. R., Hume, K. A., McIntyre, N. S., Nowell, S. W., Steinbrenner, J. R., Tomaszewski, B., Sam, A. M., & DaWalt, L. (2021). Educational Interventions for Children and Youth with Autism: A 40-Year Perspective. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(12), 4354–4369. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803-021-04990-1
Petersson-Bloom, L., & Holmqvist, M. (2022). Strategies in supporting inclusive education for autistic students—A systematic review of qualitative research results. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 7, 23969415221123428. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969415221123429
Sandgreen, H., Frederiksen, L. H., & Bilenberg, N. (2021). Digital Interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(9), 3138–3152. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803-020-04778-9
Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). How to Differentiate Instruction in Academically Diverse Classooms How to (3rd Edition). ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A. ., & Imbeau, M. B. . (2023a). Leading and managing a differentiated classroom (Second Edition). ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A. ., & Imbeau, M. B. . (2023b). Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom, 2nd Edition. In ASCD (2nd Edition). ASCD. 1703 North Beauregard Street, Alexandria, VA 22311-1714. Tel: 800-933-2723; Tel: 703-578-9600; Fax: 703-575-5400; Web site: http://www.ascd.org.
Vogindroukas, I., Stankova, M., Chelas, E. N., & Proedrou, A. (2022). Language and Speech Characteristics in Autism. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 18, 2367. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S331987
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S., Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., & Souberman, E. (1978). Mind in Society The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
Wang, T., Ma, Y., Du, X., Li, C., Peng, Z., Wang, Y., & Zhou, H. (2024). Digital interventions for autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatric Investigation, 8(3), 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/PED4.12417
Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., Brock, M. E., Plavnick, J. B., Fleury, V. P., & Schultz, T. R. (2015). Evidence-Based Practices for Children, Youth, and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 1951–1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803-014-2351-Z
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7610.1976.TB00381.X
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ida Vera Sophya, Rudi Hartono, Hendi Pratama
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
